PYTANIA KIERUNKOWE

What is language? Present different views on the definition and describe four properties of language.

Language is a system of communication that uses sounds or symbols to convey meaning; its properties include arbitrariness, productivity, displacement and duality.

Compare English to Polish – similarities and differences.

Both are Indo-European languages with subject-verb-object word order, but English relies on strict syntax, whereas Polish uses rich inflection; Polish has grammatical gender, while English does not.

Define each of the following fields of linguistics and their area of interest: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.

Phonetics – speech sounds and their articulation. Phonology – how sounds function in a language. Morphology – word formation and structure. Syntax – sentence structure. Semantics – meaning in language. Pragmatics – language in context.

What are the origins of human language? How do we know what a given language looked like in the past?

Theories include divine, evolutionary, and social origins; historical linguistics and comparative reconstruction help trace linguistic changes.

What are: natural languages, ethnic languages, pidgin languages, dialects, idiolects, artificial languages?

Natural languages – evolved over time (English). Ethnic languages (Navajo). Pidgin languages – simplified (Tok Pisin). Dialects – regional or social. Idiolects – an individual's unique language. Artificial languages – intentionally created (Esperanto)

What are the features of (the do’s and don’ts) formal essays and academic writing?

Formal essays require clear thesis statements, structured arguments, objective tone, citations, and avoidance of contractions, slang, and personal opinions.

What is rhetoric? Give examples of rhetorical devices.

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion; examples include metaphors, alliteration, anaphora, and rhetorical questions.

What is the difference between literal and figurative language? Give some examples of literary devices.

Literal language means exactly what it says, while figurative language includes metaphors (e.g., "Time is a thief"), similes, and personification.

What is the Renaissance? Provide its timeframe and express how it impacted the then aspects of cultural life. How did it differ from the previous era?

The Renaissance (14th–17th century) was a revival of classical art, literature, and science, emphasizing humanism, contrasting the religious focus of the Middle Ages.

Characterize different literary genres and subgenres.

Genres include fiction (novel, short story), non-fiction (biography, essay), poetry (lyric, epic), and drama (tragedy, comedy).

What are the differences and similarities between L1 and L2 development?

L1 acquisition is natural and subconscious, while L2 learning requires conscious effort and may involve interference from L1.

Describe the idea of nativism proposed by Noam Chomsky.

Chomsky's nativism suggests humans have an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that enables learning of any language.

Compare the approach to progress and to errors in behaviorism, nativism, cognitivism, and interactionism.

Behaviorism, errors need correction. Nativism, errors reflect internal grammar formation. Cognitivism, errors are developmental. Interactionism, errors indicate negotiation of meaning.

Present the theory of acquisition proposed by Stephen Krashen.

Krashen's theory includes five hypotheses: acquisition-learning, monitor, input, affective filter, and natural order.

How do we teach one language subsystem (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions)?

Effective teaching involves explicit instruction, practice activities, contextual examples, and communicative tasks.

How do we train one language skill (reading, listening, speaking, writing)?

Training involves exposure, practice, scaffolding, feedback, and integration into real-life tasks.

What is learner autonomy and how to promote it as a teacher and as a learner?

Learner autonomy is the ability to self-direct learning, fostered through self-assessment, goal-setting, and independent practice.

Describe three selected mainstream methods of (or approaches to) teaching English as a foreign language.

Grammar-translation – focus on rules and translation. Direct method – immersive, without translation. Communicative approach – emphasis on interaction and real-life use.

What are the so-called “fringe methods” of teaching English as a foreign language? Describe three of them.

Fringe methods include Suggestopedia (relaxation-based), Silent Way (minimal teacher intervention), and TPR (physical movement-based learning).

Kompetencja językowa a kompetencja komunikacyjna – charakterystyka i porównanie pojęć.

Kompetencja językowa to znajomość gramatyki i słownictwa, a komunikacyjna obejmuje również umiejętność skutecznego użycia języka w interakcji.

Neurofizjologiczne podłoże języka – omów ośrodki języka w mózgu.

Główne ośrodki to ośrodek Broki (produkcja mowy) i ośrodek Wernickego (rozumienie), zlokalizowane w lewej półkuli.

Model procesu komunikacji z uwzględnieniem psychologicznego wymiaru aktu komunikacji – scharakteryzuj wybrany model.

Model Shannona-Weavera przedstawia komunikację jako transmisję informacji przez nadawcę, kanał, odbiorcę z możliwością zakłóceń i sprzężenia zwrotnego.

Specyficzne a niespecyficzne zaburzenia mowy i języka – określ różnice między nimi.

Specyficzne (np. SLI) dotyczą tylko języka, niespecyficzne (np. afazja) wynikają z problemów neurologicznych.

What is “a phoneme” and “an allophone” and in what situation 2 sounds are phonologically distinct (contrastive)? Provide examples.

A phoneme is a distinct sound unit (e.g., /p/ and /b/ in "pat" vs. "bat"), while allophones are variations of a phoneme (e.g., aspirated vs. unaspirated /p/).

Describe the articulatory tract and the involvement of different organs in speech production.

The articulatory tract includes the lungs (airflow), larynx (voice production), and oral/nasal cavities (sound shaping) with key organs like the tongue, lips, and palate modifying speech sounds.

Describe the vowel system of English. Include diphthongs and triphthongs.

English vowels include short (/ɪ, e, æ/), long (/iː, uː, ɑː/), diphthongs (/aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ/), and triphthongs (/aʊə, eɪə/), differing in tongue position and rounding.

Describe the consonant system of English.

English consonants are categorized by place (bilabial, dental, velar), manner (plosive, fricative, nasal), and voicing (voiced vs. voiceless).

Explain the nature of stress and intonation. What different types of stress and intonation do we distinguish?

Stress highlights syllables (word stress: 'REcord vs. re'CORD), while intonation conveys meaning, emotions, and sentence type (falling for statements, rising for yes/no questions).

Describe phonological processes that take place in connected speech.

Connected speech involves assimilation (sound changes, e.g., "input" → [ɪnpʊt]), elision (sound omission, e.g., "friends" → [frɛnz]), and linking (/r/ in "far away" → [fa: r ə'weɪ]).

What are the functions of modal verbs? Name at least five modal verbs and give examples.

Modal verbs (can, must, may, should, will) express ability ("I can swim"), obligation ("You must go"), possibility ("It may rain"), advice ("You should study"), and certainty ("He will come").

List and briefly describe main derivational processes in English.

Derivation involves adding prefixes (un+happy) or suffixes (kind+ness), conversion (change word class, e.g., "to Google"), compounding ("toothbrush"), blending ("brunch"), and clipping ("ad" from "advertisement").

List and briefly describe types of sentences in English. Give examples.

English sentences include declarative ("She runs"), interrogative ("Does she run?"), imperative ("Run!"), and exclamatory ("What a day!"), classified by function and complexity (simple, compound, complex).

What does it mean that language has a phrase structure? What is a phrase (describe and give examples of different phrases)?

Phrase structure means sentences are built hierarchically; types include noun phrases ("the big house"), verb phrases ("is running"), and prepositional phrases ("in the park").

Word classes in English: categories, sub-categories, essential defining features of each category and subcategory. Provide examples.

English has nouns (countable/uncountable), verbs (transitive/intransitive), adjectives (comparative/superlative), adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, e.g., "quickly" (adverb), "but" (conjunction).

List lexical relations in language and give examples in English.

Lexical relations include synonymy (big/large), antonymy (hot/cold), homonymy (bank: river/bank: finance), hyponymy (rose is a flower), and polysemy (light: not heavy / illumination).

What is a morpheme? What are: free, bound, inflectional and derivational morphemes?

A morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit; free (can stand alone, e.g., "cat"), bound (must attach, e.g., "-s"), inflectional (grammatical, e.g., "-ed"), derivational (creates new words, e.g., "un-").

What are state verbs that do not normally have continuous tenses? Provide examples.

State verbs describe conditions, not actions (e.g., "believe," "love," "own") and do not take continuous forms (*"I am knowing" is incorrect).

Describe problems resulting from lexical contrast between English and Polish and provide examples.

False cognates cause confusion, e.g., "actual" (Eng.) means "real," not "aktualny" (Pol.); phrasal verbs (e.g., "give up") lack direct Polish equivalents.

Describe problems resulting from word order contrast between English and Polish and provide examples.

English follows strict SVO order ("I love you"), while Polish allows flexibility ("Kocham cię" vs. "Cię kocham"), affecting sentence processing.

Describe problems resulting from gender contrast between English and Polish and provide examples.

Polish has grammatical gender (e.g., "pies" – masculine, "kotka" – feminine), while English mainly uses natural gender ("dog" for both genders), leading to translation challenges.

Characterize the literary genre of novel and give some examples of Charles Dickens’ novels.

A novel is a long narrative fiction; Dickens' works include Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, known for social critique.

What is transcendentalism and who are its best-known representatives?

Transcendentalism (19th-century American movement) emphasized intuition and nature; key figures include Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

Present the conflict known as “the Troubles.”

The Troubles (1960s–1998) was a conflict in Northern Ireland between unionists (pro-UK) and republicans (pro-Ireland), marked by violence and political tension.

How big is the territory and the number of people in the US? Please describe in detail three different states.

The US covers ~9.8 million km² with ~330 million people; California is the most populous, Texas is the second-largest by area, and Florida is known for tourism.

What is New England? What accounts for its specific status?

New England (northeastern US) includes six states, known for colonial history, elite universities (Harvard, Yale), and distinct cultural identity.

Who was Martin Luther King Junior? What was his method of fighting for freedom? How did technology help him? How, when, and where did King Junior die?

MLK Jr. was a civil rights leader advocating nonviolence; television and radio spread his message; assassinated in Memphis, 1968.

Who was King Alfred? When did he live? What is he remembered for?

Alfred the Great (849–899) defended England against Vikings, promoted education, and strengthened laws.

Who were the Pilgrim Fathers? When and where did they arrive in America? For what reasons? Give the name of the ship on which the Pilgrim Fathers went there.

Pilgrim Fathers were English Puritans seeking religious freedom; arrived in Plymouth in 1620 aboard the Mayflower.