12 Abnormal, Emergency & Survival

What is the fundamental priority in any abnormal or emergency situation?

Maintain aircraft control and a safe flight path first; then diagnose, manage the problem, communicate and plan the safest outcome.

Why should diagnosis not take priority over aircraft control?

An initially misunderstood failure is usually less dangerous than losing control of an otherwise flyable aircraft.

What is the purpose of memory items in an emergency procedure?

To perform only the most time-critical actions that cannot safely wait for checklist reference; the procedure should then be continued or verified using the applicable checklist.

Why should irreversible actions normally be positively identified and confirmed?

Shutting down or isolating the wrong functioning system can turn a manageable failure into a much more serious one.

What is the practical difference between MAYDAY and PAN PAN?

MAYDAY indicates distress requiring immediate assistance; PAN PAN indicates urgency affecting safety but not requiring immediate assistance.

How are the radiotelephony distress and urgency signals normally transmitted?

“MAYDAY” or “PAN PAN” is preferably spoken three times before the message.

What information is most useful in an emergency transmission?

Aircraft identification, nature of emergency, intentions, position/level and any assistance required; communicate what time and workload permit.

Why should pilots declare an emergency early when circumstances justify it?

It gives ATC and other services time to provide priority, airspace, weather, runway and emergency-response support.

What is the key distinction between an engine failure and an engine fire/severe damage?

A simple loss of thrust may leave the engine structurally intact and potentially restartable; fire or severe damage requires isolation/shutdown according to the aircraft procedure and may make restart inappropriate.

What are the immediate aerodynamic consequences of an engine failure on a twin-engine aircraft?

Loss of thrust plus asymmetric thrust/yaw; the aircraft also has less excess thrust and therefore degraded climb capability.

Why is maintaining appropriate speed especially important after an engine failure?

Adequate speed preserves controllability and OEI climb capability while avoiding an accelerated approach toward stall.

Why should engine identification be based on multiple indications rather than one cue?

Yaw, noise or a single abnormal indication can be misleading; several independent parameters reduce the risk of shutting down the wrong engine.

Why is an engine relight decision type- and situation-dependent?

Restart feasibility depends on the nature of the failure, altitude, speed, damage indications and the certified relight envelope.

What is the core take-off decision principle around V1?

Before V1 a recognised condition meeting reject criteria may lead to stopping; at or after V1 the normal strategy is to continue unless the aircraft is incapable of safe flight.

Why is a high-speed rejected take-off itself a major emergency?

Stopping energy, tyre loads and brake temperatures can become extreme, with subsequent brake, tyre and fire hazards.

After a high-energy rejected take-off, why is “aircraft stopped” not necessarily the end of the emergency?

Brake/tyre condition, fire, evacuation need and safe positioning must still be assessed.

What is the first physiological priority after a significant depressurisation at altitude?

Protect yourself from hypoxia immediately by using the appropriate oxygen equipment before attempting prolonged diagnosis or communication.

What is the difference between explosive, rapid and slow depressurisation?

They describe how quickly cabin pressure is lost; a slow leak may be particularly insidious because the initial cues can be subtle.

Why is a slow depressurisation potentially more difficult to detect than a rapid one?

There may be no dramatic noise, fog or pressure sensation, allowing cabin altitude and hypoxia to develop unnoticed.

How does time of useful consciousness change with altitude?

It decreases dramatically as altitude increases, making immediate oxygen use increasingly critical at high altitude.

What is the main objective of an emergency descent following loss of pressurisation?

Reach an altitude where occupants can safely breathe while maintaining terrain clearance, aircraft limitations and control.

Is 10,000 ft always the correct emergency-descent target altitude?

No. The target must also respect terrain, minimum safe altitudes and other operational constraints; higher terrain may require remaining above 10,000 ft.

Why is speed management important during an emergency descent?

A high descent rate is desirable, but structural/speed limitations, controllability, turbulence and configuration limits must still be respected.

Why must terrain be considered before or during an emergency descent?

A rapid descent toward a nominal safe breathing altitude can be catastrophic if terrain or minimum safe altitude is higher.

Why do passenger oxygen systems provide only limited-duration oxygen?

They are intended primarily to protect occupants while the aircraft descends to a safe cabin altitude, not to sustain normal high-altitude cruise indefinitely.

What is important to understand about chemical passenger oxygen generators?

Once activated they normally continue producing oxygen until depleted and become very hot; exact duration and system design are aircraft-specific.

What is the first general priority in a smoke or fumes event?

Protect the crew’s ability to see, breathe and control the aircraft while identifying and isolating the source as quickly as practicable.

Why is smoke in the cockpit particularly dangerous even before fire damages the aircraft?

It can impair vision, breathing, cognition, communication and the crew’s ability to operate controls.

What is the role of crew protective breathing equipment (PBE)?

To protect the eyes and respiratory system from smoke/toxic fumes while allowing crew duties such as firefighting or source identification.

What minimum PBE breathing-gas duration is required for applicable CAT aeroplanes under EASA rules?

At least 15 minutes.

What is the basic strategy for an in-flight fire?

Detect and locate if possible, remove/isolate its energy or fuel source, extinguish it, monitor for recurrence and land as soon as the situation requires.

Why is removing the fire’s energy source important in addition to using an extinguisher?

Extinguishing agent may suppress flames temporarily, but continued electrical power, fuel or heat can cause reignition.

Why is continued monitoring essential after a fire appears extinguished?

Residual heat or an unidentified source can cause hidden fire or reignition.

Why is an uncontrolled in-flight fire generally treated as an immediate landing problem?

Fire can propagate rapidly and unpredictably, degrading structure, systems and habitability faster than many other failures.

Why can indiscriminate ventilation during a smoke/fire event be hazardous?

Changing airflow can spread smoke or supply additional oxygen to a fire; smoke-removal actions therefore follow the aircraft procedure.

What is thermal runaway in a lithium battery?

A self-heating chain reaction that can propagate between cells and cause repeated ignition, intense heat and toxic gases.

Why is cooling important after extinguishing a lithium-battery fire?

Extinguishing visible flames may not stop thermal runaway; sustained cooling reduces temperature and the risk of propagation/reignition, following the applicable procedure.

What is pilot incapacitation?

A physical or cognitive condition that prevents a crew member from performing required duties adequately; it may be obvious or subtle.

Why can subtle incapacitation be especially hazardous?

The affected pilot may remain conscious and appear functional while making inappropriate decisions or failing to perform tasks.

What are the broad priorities when one pilot becomes incapacitated?

Maintain control, assume the affected pilot’s duties, prevent interference with controls, obtain assistance, manage workload and plan an appropriate landing.

What factors drive the decision to evacuate after landing or stopping?

Immediate threats such as fire, smoke, fuel leakage or structural danger must be weighed against the hazards created by evacuation itself.

Why should evacuation not be initiated automatically after every abnormal landing?

Slides, traffic, engines, fire outside the aircraft and passenger injuries can make evacuation more dangerous than remaining on board.

Once an emergency evacuation is ordered, what is the key objective?

Move occupants away from the aircraft rapidly through usable exits while avoiding external hazards.

Why must unusable exits be actively blocked during an evacuation?

Opening or using an exit exposed to fire, water, obstacles or other hazards may cause more casualties.

Why is cabin preparation important before a foreseeable emergency landing or ditching?

It secures occupants and cabin items, briefs passengers and crew, prepares exits/equipment and reduces injuries during impact and evacuation.

Why should life-jackets normally not be inflated inside the aircraft?

An inflated jacket can restrict movement and trap the wearer inside a flooded or confined cabin.

When do EASA CAT rules normally require individual life-jackets on landplanes?

When operating more than 50 NM from shore, or when the take-off/approach path over water creates a likelihood of ditching.

When are life rafts required for a typical CAT aeroplane capable of continuing after the critical engine failure?

When operating over water beyond the lesser of 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400 NM from land suitable for an emergency landing.

What is the purpose of an ELT?

To transmit a distress signal that helps search-and-rescue services detect and locate the aircraft or survivors.

What is the practical difference between 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz in modern ELT use?

406 MHz provides satellite-based distress alerting and identification; 121.5 MHz is primarily used for local homing.

What should determine survival priorities after a forced landing away from immediate rescue?

Immediate safety and injuries first, then shelter/environmental protection, signalling/location, water and only later food.

Why is remaining near a survivable wreck often advantageous if the location is safe?

The aircraft is much easier for search-and-rescue services to detect than individual survivors.

What is the first survival priority after ditching?

Get clear of immediate aircraft hazards, establish flotation/raft survival, account for people and maximise the chance of being located.

Why is prevention of heat loss critical in cold-water survival?

Water removes body heat far faster than air, so hypothermia can become life-threatening well before dehydration or starvation.

Why should survivors avoid drinking seawater?

Its salt concentration increases the body’s water requirement and accelerates dehydration.

What is the purpose of survival signalling equipment?

To make survivors easier to detect visually, electronically or by radio and thereby reduce rescue time.